Language structure
See also: Part of speech, Morphology, Grammatical category, and Ontology Verbs form the backbone of language and of reality itself. *An event is an instance of a verb in the same way that "John" is an instance of "human". Reality is made up of *Objects (nouns) **The attributes of an object are adjectives *Actions (verbs) which alter the attributes of objects **The attributes of an action are adverbs *Rules **Events cause other events according to precise rules. Objects and actions with similar attributes belong to the same type. Sometimes a type is just a single property (solid, liqid, gas). Common attributes are: *Location *Velocity *Type of motion *Size *Shape *Composition *Color *What is it a part of *What objects are part of it *Who owns it Objects are named for: *What action happened to it that caused it to exist **Sedimentary rocks: rocks created by an act of sedimentation *What action it does, or makes other things do, that makes it useful (and which is usually what caused it to exist) **screwdriver: tool created by someone that needed to drive screws Even adjectives are verbs in disguise: *hungry: to hunger Adjectives are modified by adverbs: *he is exceedingly quick (he runs quickly) Attributes are the subject of pure science *length, shape, velocity are the subject of geometry. Real world objects are the subject of applied science. Many words can be broken down into simpler words: The obvious question, of course, is what is the simplest set of words that can form a language. What are the atoms of the language universe. Most of the words below are from Wikipedia:Appendix:Basic English word list Structure words :See also: Function word Determiner :See also: Determiner Articles *a, an, the Demonstratives *this, that, these, other, same *such, *next, previous Possessive determiner Possessive is not just used for buying and selling. For example: He possesses great courage. His great courage is an attribute that "belongs" to him. *of Quantifiers *1, 2, 3, *4, 8, 12, *16, 256, *all, every, most, some, no, (time, place, one, thing, occasion) *many, few, several, *much, little, *enough Distributive determiners *each, any, *either, neither Interrogative determiners *which, what, whose Pronouns Personal pronouns *First person **I, me *Second person **you (you) *Third person **he, him, she, her, it (they, them) *First + Second person **we, us *First + third person **we, us *First + Second + Third person **we, us Possessive pronouns *First person **my *Second person **your *Third person **his, her, its Reciprocal pronouns *each other, one another Misc *same *other Prepositions :See also: Preposition Besides their literal use to indicate direction prepositions are also used to create Phrasal verbs. The meaning of a phrasal verb often cannot be inferred from the meaning of the individual words. *Throw up *look after *pick on *take after *pass for *stand by Idiom: An established expression whose meaning is not deducible from the literal meanings of its component words, often peculiar to a given language. Motion Directions *up, down *forward, back *right, left, sideways *north, south, east, west, *parallel Top *above, over *atop, ontop *upon Bottom *below *beneath *under, underneath Front *before *opposite Back *after, *behind *beyond *past Side *beside Middle *amid Inside *among *between *in, inside, into *within Outside *around *out, outside *without Near *about *at *by *near Touching *across *against *along *on, onto *off Misc *for *as, like *of *than *with Conjunctions :See also: Conjunction *Coordinating **For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So, Consequently *Correlative **either...or **not only...but (also) **neither...nor **both...and **whether...or **just as...so **the...the **as...as **as much...as **no sooner...than **rather...than *Subordinating **after, although, as, as far as, as if, as long as, as soon as, as though, because, before, even if, even though, every time, if, in order that, since, so, so that, than, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever Auxiliary verbs *start, begin, *continue, persist *stop, finish, end, cease *intend, *dare, *tend, *try, *seem, *choose, *help Sentence words *ouch, *wow, *damn, *hey, hi *bye, *okay, *oh, *m-hm, *huh, *uh, *er, *um *yes, no *okay, *please, Particles *approximately *undoubtedly *surprisingly Verbs *Change: behave, act *Information (true/false): assert, **Set theory (set of all objects for which something is true): *Graph theory (see also: Line graph): arrange, connect, sort **Number theory: extend, add, count, increase, number, ***Geometry: ****Vector fields: *Time: wait, *Space: cover (over), come, go, send, put, **Move: distribute, drop, fall, flow, fly, gather, move, roll, scatter, transport, turn, meet, *Substance: boil, exist, freeze, melt, burn, heat, cook, *Interact: affect, cause, compare, depend, experience, react, relate, *Phenomena: wave *Physics: blow, expand, hang, lift, measure, rub, shake, shock, slip, support, touch, twist, **Force: attract, pull, push, *Structure: contain (within), fold, join, stretch, wash, **Destruct: break, crush, cut, divide, smash, *Life: bear, die, grow, live, reproduce, *Body: **bite, cough, drink, kiss, smile, talk, voice, whistle, **breathe, sneeze, **cry, laugh, **digest, **grasp, grip, **jump, kick, run, step, walk, **rest, sleep, **swim, *Sense: **feel, **hear, **look, observe, see, view, **smell, taste, *Mind: **believe, deceive, discover, doubt, dream, expect, know, opine, pretend, reason, surprise, think, trick, ***investigate, test, **decide, select, **amuse, care, desire, enjoy, hope, love, respect, **fear, hate, regret, *Signs: represent, signal, sign language *Words: agree, answer, argue, discuss, point, question, request, say, sing, state, suggest, **Educate: learning, teaching, *Drawing: draw, mark, print, **Write: read, record, *Organize: approve, control, direct, govern, guide, judge, lead, manage®, protest, rule, serve, **Punish: attack, fight, wound, *Play: *Commerce: get, give, have, keep, lose, offer, take, **Money: exchange, own, pay, reward, trade, value, **Business: compete, contract, demand, insure, marry, supply, waste, *Make: develop, invent, produce, work, fix, replicate **Clothing: stitch, *Transportation: journey, *Tools: adjust, drive, operate, use, Nouns Thing Set theory: group Quantification: Number, amount Time: Space: Substance: Phenomena: Structure: Life: Plant: Animal: body, food, clothing, shelter, senses, locomotion (slide, crawl, wiggle) Human: Words: education, knowledge, writing, math, science Civilization: authority, law, judge, police, punishment, religion, society Money: occupation, buy, sell, business, profit, value Transportation: vehicle Tools: Information *fact, order Physics Time time *hour, minute, second *day, night, morning, evening *week, month, year, decade, century *spring, summer, autumn, winter Space *distance, position, place, size, space, velocity, *slope, angle, direction *ball, circle, curve, form, line, square, ring, round, shape, *front, middle, back, edge, Phenomena *color, event, light, process, wave, Substance substance: elements, mass, material, weight, *gas: air, steam *liquid: water, oil, ink, paint *jelly: *solid: ice, glass, stone, chalk, salt, coal *powder: dust, sand *metal: brass, copper, gold, iron, silver, steel, tin, *life: cotton, wood, wool, leather, linen, paper, silk, wax, sugar, cork, Nature *sky: sun, moon, star, planet **weather: cloud, thunder, rain, snow, wind *earth: country, field, land, mountain **life: forest, garden *water: sea, harbour, island, river Structure *container: bag, basin, basket, bottle, box, bucket, cup, kettle, pot, part *fasten: screw, nail, hook, knot *break: *parts: board, brick, frame Reproduction family *parent: father, mother *child: son, daughter *sibling: brother, sister Plants *plant: grass, herb, tree, vine Plant parts *branch, stem, stick *root: potato *leaf: *flower: *grain: rice, seed, nut Animals animals: *fish: *bird: fowl *pet: cat, dog *insect: ant, bee *farm: cow, goat, horse, pig, sheep *reptile: snake *other: monkey, rat, worm *egg Animal parts body: *upper part: head, eyes, mouth, ear, chin, face, nose, neck, throat, tongue, lip *front part: chest *back part: back, tail *extremities: arm, finger, hand, thumb, wing *lower part: leg, foot, knee, toe *exterior: skin, hair, feather, horn, tooth, *interior: muscle, blood, bone, nerve, heart, stomach, brain Health *disease Food food: meal *bread, cake *dairy: butter, cheese, milk, *fruit: apple, berry, orange, *meat: *soup: *wine: Clothing cloth: *head: hat *torso: shirt, coat, *waist: trousers, dress, skirt *hand: glove *foot: sock, shoe, boot, stocking *part: collar, pocket, thread Shelter structure *building: door, floor, room, roof, window, wall, arch Locomotion *Move: Walk, run, fly, swim Humans person *baby *child: boy, girl *adult: man, woman acquaintance: friend, enemy Mind mind: attention, comfort, disgust, humour, idea, interest, memory, mind, music, pain, pleasure, purpose, shame, surprise, Words *name, word, Writing *book, pen, pencil, letter, page, note, prose, story, verse, language, news Science science: theory Authority authority, crime, law, nation, peace, society, war, Religion religion: Money money: business, company, credit, debt, industry, market, money, price, profit, property, receipt, secretary, tax, Places *church: place of worship *farm: place of agriculture *hospital: place of healing *house: place of residing *library: place of reading *school: place of learning *store: place of buying *town: place of living *prison: place of imprisonment *office: place of officiating Tools *apparatus, instrument, machine, Time: *watch, clock Space: *brake, spring Structure: *sewing, needle Animal: *spoon, fork, plate, tray *hammer: hammer *cut:knife, blade, scissors *dig:spade *farm: plough *brush: brush *comb: comb *pump: pump *catch: net *threaten: whip, gun, army *rain: umbrella *lock: lock, key *sound: band, bell, *ornament: jewel Furniture bath, bed, clock, curtain, drawer, oven, shelf, table, chair Transportation Vehicle: *water: boat, ship *air: plane *rail: train *road: carriage, cart, Vehicle parts *engine, sail, wheel Infrastructure structure *path: road, bridge, rail Uncategorized *bulb, button, *camera, card, chain, cord, cushion, *drain, *flag, *hole *map, match, *parcel, picture, pin, pipe, *rod, *sponge, stamp, station, *ticket, *wire, *account, advertisement, art, *balance, base, bit, burst, *canvas, chance, colour, committee, condition, crack, current, *damage, danger, degree, design, detail, *error, example, expert, *fiction, *harmony, history, *impulse, *level, limit, list, *mine, mist, *noise, *ornament, *paste, poison, porter, power, *quality, *range, rate, ray, rhythm, *scale, seat, self, sense, sex, shade, sign, smoke, soap, sound, stage, system, *trouble, *unit, *way, weight, Adjectives able, acid, alike, angry, automatic beautiful cheap, chemical, chief, clear, common, conscious elastic, electric, equal fat, fertile, flat, free, frequent general, great healthy, hollow important medical, military natural, necessary, normal physical, political, possible, present, probable quick ready, regular, responsible separate, serious, sticky, stiff, sudden thick, tired violent young Opposites Numbers number: *first, second, third, fourth (item number one, item number two...) Colors *blue, green, yellow, orange, red *white, grey, black *brown Adverbs Adverbs are considered a part of speech in traditional English grammar, and are still included as a part of speech in grammar taught in schools and used in dictionaries. However, modern grammarians recognize that words traditionally grouped together as adverbs serve a number of different functions. Some describe adverbs a "catch-all" category that includes all words that do not belong to one of the other parts of speech *near, far *upward, downward *forward, backward *northward, southward, eastward, westward *then *there *so *very *quite *well *almost *even *only *again *ever *still *together *approximately *undoubtedly Negation *no *not *un- *anti- *in-, im-, il-, ir- *dis- Noun types Proper nouns vs common nouns *John vs human Countable and uncountable nouns *Chair vs furniture (many vs much) Collective nouns *committee Concrete nouns and abstract nouns *Rock vs justice Noun Declension The word "sheep" is its own plural. To indicate more than one sheep we would say "multiple sheep". In some languages all the words are their own plurals. From Wikipedia:Declension: number *singular *dual *plural case *nominative case *accusative case *genitive case *dative case gender *masculine *neuter *feminine Verb types From Wikipedia:Verb: Intransitive verbs Does not have a direct object *The boy wept. Transitive verbs Has a direct object *My friend read the newspaper Ditransitive verbs Has a direct object and an indirect object *The players gave their teammates high fives Double transitive verbs Has a direct object and a complement *The young couple considers the neighbors wealthy people Linking verbs Can't be followed by an adverb or end a sentence, but instead must be followed by a noun or adjective *Josh remained a reliable friend Verb conjugation From Wikipedia:Grammatical conjugation: voice *active, passive, self tense *past, present, future, infinitive *(earlier, now, later) *(just earlier, right now, just about) aspect *in progress, completed, mood *indicative, *subjunctive, Conditional, optative, imperative, Jussive, potential, hypothetical, Inferential, *interrogative, injunctive, case *nominative, accusative, dative and genitive person *I, you, he number *single, plural gender *male, female possession *possessor, possessed definiteness *a, the politeness *tu, vos causativity *causation (rise → raise) clusivity *inclusive "we", exclusive "we" interrogativity *question transitivity *direct objects valency *impersonal, intransitive, transitive, ditransitive, tritransitive polarity *affirmation, negation telicity *complete, incomplete (John built a house in a month vs John built houses for a month) volition *intentional, unintentional mirativity *surprise evidentiality *hearsay, personal observation animacy *how sentient or alive the referent is. associativity *group associated with X pluractionality *Plural reciprocity *each other Frequentative *routine habit Language types :See also: Morphological typology From Wikipedia:Isolating language Historically, languages were divided into three basic types: *Isolating *Flectional (Fusional languages) *Agglutinative The traditional morphological types can be categorized by two distinct parameters: *Morpheme per word ratio (how many morphemes there are per word) *Degree of fusion between morphemes (how separable words' inflectional morphemes are according to units of meaning represented) The English term "rice" is a single word consisting of only one morpheme (rice). *This word has a 1:1 morpheme per word ratio. In contrast, "handshakes" is a single word consisting of three morphemes (hand, shake, -s). *This word has a 3:1 morpheme per word ratio. The Russian word vídyat/видят 'they see' has a morpheme per word ratio of 2:1, having two morphemes: *The root vid-/вид-, which conveys the imperfective aspect meaning, *The inflectional morpheme -yat/-ят which inflects for four units of meaning (3rd person subject, plural subject, present/future tense, indicative mood). Effectively, it has four units of meaning in one inseparable morpheme From Wikipedia:Morpheme: Derivational morphemes, when combined with a root, change either the semantic meaning or part of speech of the affected word. *Happiness: changes the word from an adjective (happy) to a noun (happiness). Inflectional morphemes modify a verb's tense, aspect, mood, person, or number, or a noun's, pronoun's or adjective's number, gender or case, without affecting the word's meaning or class (part of speech). *Waited: changes to past tense without changing the meaning of "wait". Analytic language From Wikipedia:Analytic language An analytic language is a language that primarily conveys relationships between words in sentences by way of helper words (particles, prepositions, etc.) and word order, as opposed to utilizing inflections. An analytic language can lack inflectional morphemes yet still have derivational morphemes. Isolating language From Wikipedia:Isolating language An isolating language is a type of language with a very low morpheme per word ratio and no inflectional morphology whatsoever. In the extreme case, each word contains a single morpheme. Synthetic language From Wikipedia:Synthetic language A synthetic language uses inflection or agglutination to express syntactic relationships within a sentence Agglutinative language From Wikipedia:Agglutinative language An agglutinative language is a type of synthetic language with morphology that primarily uses agglutination. Words may contain different morphemes to determine their meanings, but all of these morphemes (including stems and affixes) remain, in every aspect, unchanged after their unions. Fusional language From Wikipedia:Fusional language Fusional languages or inflected languages (or inflectional or flectional in older terminology) are a type of synthetic language, distinguished from agglutinative languages by their tendency to use a single inflectional morpheme to denote multiple grammatical, syntactic, or semantic features. Polysynthetic language From Wikipedia:Polysynthetic language Polysynthetic languages are highly synthetic languages, i.e. languages in which words are composed of many morphemes (word parts that have independent meaning but may or may not be able to stand alone). They are very highly inflected languages. Polysynthetic languages typically have long "sentence-words" Oligosynthetic language From Wikipedia:Oligosynthetic language An oligosynthetic language (from the Greek ὀλίγος, meaning "few" or "little") is any language using very few morphemes, perhaps only a hundred, which combine synthetically to form statements. Oligosynthesis is almost entirely theoretical and would depend heavily on the creation of lengthy compound words, to an extent far exceeding that of natural polysynthetic languages Word frequency :See also: Wikipedia:Most common words in English From Wikipedia:Brown Corpus: One interesting result is that even for quite large samples, graphing words in order of decreasing frequency of occurrence shows a hyperbola: the frequency of the n-th most frequent word is roughly proportional to 1/n. Thus "the" constitutes nearly 7% of the Brown Corpus, "to" and "of" more than another 3% each; while about half the total vocabulary of about 50,000 words are hapax legomena: words that occur only once in the corpus. This simple rank-vs.-frequency relationship was noted for an extraordinary variety of phenomena by George Kingsley Zipf, and is known as Zipf's law. The word "the" forms 0.07 of the words in an average text. 1/0.07 = 14.2857142857 Most common words in English A list of 25 words that occur most frequently in written English is given below, based on an analysis of the Oxford English Corpus. By parts of speech The following is the list of most common written words subdivided by part of speech. Prefixes Esperanto Suffixes Esperanto Creating nouns from verbs Phonology :External link: MRI's of speech and IPA Typical speech is about 10 phonemes per second. English averages about 4 syllables per second. Consonants :See also: Place of articulation and Manner of articulation From Wikipedia:Template:IPA pulmonic consonants: Vowels | | |} | | |} From Wikipedia:English_phonology#Vowels: Tones Tones can be used to express: References External links *Evolution of Human Language Project Category:Language